NATIONALIST POPULISM AND POST-COMMUNISM

the word populism – “populus” – exhibits a clear link with the democratic idea. According to them, the search for the more direct involvement of citizens is a central task not only for democracy, but also for populism. Thus, where there is democracy, there is always populism. 37 Populist parties, movements or political leaders usually see sustaining the gap between democracy as an ideal on the one hand, and as a political reality on the other. The main task for populist leaders is therefore to bridge this gap by direct, or at least a more intensive involvement of citizens in the political processes. In this regard, populism calls for principles that are equal to those contained in the theory of participative democracy. 38 However, as Margaret Canovan rightly noted, populism pushes and campaigns for a more democratic involvement of, and control by, the citizenry, which is only possible in a homogeneous community that fosters exclusion. 39 Due to this fact, populism has been studied as a phenomenon in the form of radical parties, protest movements and anti-system organisations. This point of view stresses the undemocratic character of populism, giving it pathological characteristics. In fact, populism resembles a pizza, which can have a different mixture of toppings. Other metaphors have been applied to populism as well. Y. Mény and Y. Surel compared populism to an “empty” shell, which can be filled and made meaningful by whatever is poured into it. 40 Accordingly, Paul Taggart noted that: “Populism has an essential chameleonic quality that means it always takes on the hue of the environment in which it occurs”. 41 “The people” occupy the central position in the concept of populism. However, in comparison to the theory of democracy, the people are defined as a group of citizens, who are usually being betrayed by another group that is considered to be much smaller. The main goal of populist movements is to replace – in the name of the people – the narrowly-defined elite that are in power. This aim, however, also affects the democratic institutions. Some political movements call for a more frequent use of direct democracy, such as referenda, or express a desire to put independent institutions under political control. A widespread attitude is that an anti-establishment stance is a key element of populism. Generally, populism might be characterised by a peculiar negativism that is “anti”: anti-capitalist, anti-urban, as well as xenophobic and 37 See also M. Canovan, “Trust the people! Populism and the two faces of democracy”, Political Studies , Vol. 47, No. 1. 38 See G. Sartori Teória demokracie . (Bratislava: Archa, 1994). 39 M. Canovan, “Trust the people! Populism and the two faces of democracy”, Political Studies , Vol. 47, No. 1. 40 See Y. Mény and Y. Surel, “The Constitutive Ambiguity of Populism”, Y. Mény, Y. Surel (eds.) Democracies and the Populist Challenge. (New York: Palgrave 2002). 41 P. Taggart, cf. Y. Mény and Y. Surel, “The Constitutive Ambiguity of Populism” , Y. Mény, Y. Surel (eds.) Democracies and the Populist Challenge. (New York: Palgrave 2002).

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